Learning a Complete Image Indexing Pipeline

To work at scale, a complete image indexing system comprises two components: An inverted file index to restrict the actual search to only a subset that should contain most of the items relevant to the query; An approximate distance computation mechanism to rapidly scan these lists. While supervised deep learning has recently enabled improvements to the latter, the former continues to be based on unsupervised clustering in the literature. In this work, we propose a first system that learns both components within a unifying neural framework of structured binary encoding

Body composition measured by DXA and QMR at week 18.

<p>Total body fat (TBF) and total body lean mass (TBLM) were assessed by DXA (A, B) and QMR (C, D), n = 10 per diet group. Mice on the stearic acid diet had a 25% decrease in TBF by DXA and 15% by QMR as compared to the low fat diet fed mice (*, p<0.009) and a 12% decrease as compared to mice on the corn oil diet by QMR **, p<0.008). Mice on the stearic acid diet also had a 4% increase in TBLM measured by DXA when compared to when compared to the other diet groups (*, p<0.01) and to the low fat diet fed mice when measured by QMR (*, p = 0.047).</p

Dietary Stearic Acid Leads to a Reduction of Visceral Adipose Tissue in Athymic Nude Mice

<div><p>Stearic acid (C18:0) is a long chain dietary saturated fatty acid that has been shown to reduce metastatic tumor burden. Based on preliminary observations and the growing evidence that visceral fat is related to metastasis and decreased survival, we hypothesized that dietary stearic acid may reduce visceral fat. Athymic nude mice, which are used in models of human breast cancer metastasis, were fed a stearic acid, linoleic acid (safflower oil), or oleic acid (corn oil) enriched diet or a low fat diet ad libitum. Total body weight did not differ significantly between dietary groups over the course of the experiment. However visceral fat was reduced by ∼70% in the stearic acid fed group compared to other diets. In contrast total body fat was only slightly reduced in the stearic acid diet fed mice when measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and quantitative magnetic resonance. Lean body mass was increased in the stearic acid fed group compared to all other groups by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Dietary stearic acid significantly reduced serum glucose compared to all other diets and increased monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) compared to the low fat control. The low fat control diet had increased serum leptin compared to all other diets. To investigate possible mechanisms whereby stearic acid reduced visceral fat we used 3T3L1 fibroblasts/preadipocytes. Stearic acid had no direct effects on the process of differentiation or on the viability of mature adipocytes. However, unlike oleic acid and linoleic acid, stearic acid caused increased apoptosis (programmed cell death) and cytotoxicity in preadipocytes. The apoptosis was, at least in part, due to increased caspase-3 activity and was associated with decreased cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein-2 (cIAP2) and increased Bax gene expression. In conclusion, dietary stearic acid leads to dramatically reduced visceral fat likely by causing the apoptosis of preadipocytes.</p></div

Effects of 50 µM stearic acid, oleic acid or linoleic acid on gene expression in 3T3L1 preadipocytes; Control cells were treated the same as fatty acid treated cells except they were treated with fatty acid free BSA.

<p>Cells were treated for 48 hours. These data showed that stearic acid decreased the expression of cIAP2 and Bcl2 (although only cIAP2 was significant, n = 6 replicates * p<0.01), which encodes antiapoptotic proteins, and increased Bax gene expression, which encodes for a proapoptotic protein, when compared to control cells n = 6 replicates, (* p<0.01). Linoleic acid also increased expression of Bax compared to control cells (n = 6 replicates, * p<0.01).</p

The size of abdominal adipocytes in dietary groups.

<p>Representative images of histopathologic sections of abdominal fat from mice fed: a low fat diet (A), corn oil diet (B), safflower oil diet (C) or stearic acid diet (D) All images are at the same low power (25x) magnification. (E) Mice on the low fat diet had significantly larger adipocytes as compared to all other groups (*, p<0.01).</p

Abdominal fat and organ weight.

<p>(A) Abdominal fat images are representative of each experimental group. (B) Mice on the stearic acid diet had significantly less abdominal fat when compared to the low fat and corn oil groups (*, p<0.01, n = 10 per diet group). (C) There was no difference in the weight of heart/lungs, liver, kidney or brain between any of the dietary groups.</p

Average daily caloric intake and average weekly body weights.

<p>There were 10 mice in each diet group. (A) *, stearic acid vs. all other diets, p<0.01. #, low fat vs. all other diet groups, p<0.007. (B) There were no significant changes in body weight among the four experimental groups throughout the study. The average initial body weight was 15.3±2.6 g (p = 0.277) and the final body weight was 25.0±2.3 g (p = 0.203).</p

Serum analyte analysis.

<p>N = 10 per diet group. (A) Mice on the stearic acid diet had significantly reduced serum glucose compared to all other experimental groups (*, stearic acid vs. low fat, p = 0.006; corn oil, p = 0.039; safflower oil, p<0.001). Mice on the corn oil diet also had a significantly reduced level of glucose as compared to the safflower group (#, p = 0.034). (B) Mice on the high fat diets had significantly reduced levels of leptin as compared to the low fat group (*, low fat vs. stearic acid, p<0.001; corn oil, p = 0.014; safflower oil, p<0.001). Mice on the stearic acid and safflower oil diets also had a significantly lower level of leptin when compared to the corn oil group (#, p = 0.015 and 0.003, respectively). (C) Mice on the stearic acid diet had a significantly increased level of MCP-1 when compared to the low fat and safflower oil groups (*, p = 0.003 and 0.019, respectively). Mice on the low fat diet also had a significantly reduced level of MCP-1 when compared to the corn oil group (#, p = 0.032).</p

Effects of 50 µM stearic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid on cell death and apoptosis of 3T3L1 preadipocytes.

<p>(A) Trypan blue staining showed that the percentage of dead cells was significantly increased after a 48 hour treatment with stearic acid (*, p<0.01, compared to control, n = 3). In contrast, oleic acid or linoleic acid had no significant changes over time (p>0.05, n = 3). (B) Cytotoxicity was significantly increased after 24 hours of treatment with stearic acid (*, p<0.01, compared to control, n = 5). However, it was significantly decreased with 24 hours of oleic acid treatment (#, p<0.01, compared to control, n = 4). Cytotoxicity did not change significantly with linoleic acid treatment (p>0.05, n = 4). (C) Flow cytometry revealed an increase in dead cells after 48 hours of treatment with stearic acid (*, p<0.01, compared to control, n = 4), while oleic acid significantly decreased the number of dead cells at 48 hours (#, p<0.01, compared to control, n = 4). In contrast, linoleic acid had no significant effects over time (n = 4). (D) Apoptotic cells were significantly increased with stearic acid treatment (*, p<0.01, compared to control, n = 4) and decreased with oleic acid (#, p<0.01, compared to control, n = 4). No significant changes were observed with linoleic acid treatment (p>0.05, n = 4).</p

Cytotoxicity effect of stearic acid on 3T3L1 preadipocytes.

<p>(A) Lactate dehydrogenase concentrations increased significantly when the dose of stearic acid was over 35 µM after 48 hours of treatment, and peaked at 100–200 µM (*, p<0.01, compared with the control group, n = 4). (B) Measurement of caspase-3 activity showed stearic acid (50 µM) increased caspase-3 activity of the cultured preadipocytes after 48 hours' treatment (*, p<0.05, compared to control, n = 4). (C). When preadipocytes were pretreated with a specific caspase-3 inhibitor for 4 hours, and then treated with stearic acid (50 µM), the stearic acid induced cytotoxicity was partially inhibited (*, p<0.01, compared with the control group; #, p<0.01, n = 3).</p